Confucius ~ Political Philosophy on a Timeline

When pondering the concept of political philosophy, our minds often gravitate towards names such as those of Henry David Thoreau, Hobbes, & Marx. Under the modern dominance of the West’s liberal-democratic influence, Western philosophers largely comprise our perception of political thinkers, like an agricultural field reaped into barren land. But what exists of the Eastern world, of the schools of thought cultivated by backgrounds diverse and unique from the West? What did the role of the state look like outside the cherry-picked philosophies of Western philosophers?

Confucius (Kong Fuzi)

Most people are familiar with stereotypes of Confucianism as being an outdated pseudo-religion reserved for older generations; but what was Confucianism, truly? To understand the broad-sweeping influence of this school of thought, Confucius– his life, background, and values– must be dissected.

Background

Confucius lived in the Zhou dynasty, a relatively stable period of China that discredited his teachings at the time. He was neither wealthy nor powerful– likely a descendant of aristocratic lineage, but stricken with poverty following hard times, as many other people were. He was constantly travelling feudal state to feudal state seeking an audience for his ideas, never obtaining high political office as expected of a man with his legacy. It was only in the Han dynasty, centuries after his death, when he was recognized as a great teacher; his philosophies became core Chinese principles, giving Chinese people a sense of being.

Values

There were two large components of Confucius’ philosophy on natural human order, and how life ought to be lived: family and education, both of which intersect with his political lens:

In Confucian principles, family was regarded as the primary social unit. He posited that, with man’s inherent social nature, the obligation between child and father was the strongest; sibling-to-sibling ensued, and lastly, friend-to-friend. Filial piety was the largest determinant of virtue under Confucianism, a trait ingrained into Confucian followers and echoed even throughout modern China.

But furthermore, his perception of education was incredibly distinct for his time. Confucius was an avid propagator of all humans being similar, forming the first notions of equality we embrace so intimately in the Western hemisphere today. And from people being alike, he deduced that each person was perfectible and educible– that anyone was capable of learning. Even further into his nuanced principles, he recognized certain people received opportunities to learn that others did not, that pace was an issue amongst diverse peoples. Thus, he firmly regarded his own teachings as guiding principles rather than rigid doctrines for how to live, removing the “one-size-fits-all” label that even our current society is culpable of perpetrating.

The Intersection of Confucian Principles and Political Philosophy

Source of Political Authority

In many ways, Confucian political philosophy contradicted typical liberal-democratic ideals, despite his endorsement of equality. For example, in early Zhou political philosophy, political authority derived its legitimacy from claiming the doctrine of the “Mandate of Heaven”, or tianming 天命– that a political ruler, by exhibiting exceptional virtue (de 德), would attract an anthropomorphized cosmic power called “heaven” (tian 天). These rulers’ most legitimate way of staying in power from then on was to reap tangible benefits under their government, to justify their power under supernatural intercession. Confucius placed heavy emphasis on this concept of virtue, a broad term he tended to define with his personal values of filial piety and education. He preferred ruling by the wise over ruling by the many as a democracy would, thinking that the “virtuous” in positions of leadership would yield better results and be admirable models to the populace. For instance, a virtuous leader who visibly respected their father would encourage their people to do so as well; this was a ripple effect that Confucius deemed beneficial.

Relationship Between the People and the State

The most direct linkages of Confucius’ values to his lens on governance manifest here. Confucius drew parallels between filial piety to loyalty in the political sphere– moral concepts that many were already familiar with from classical views. This solidified his definition of virtue being filial piety, and to illustrate, he noted this correlation:

“It is rare for a person who is filially pious to his parents and older siblings to be inclined to rebel against his superiors… Filial piety to parents and elder siblings may be considered the root of a person.

Furthermore, using this framework, Confucius was the first to integrate clan and state priorities. There were two categories regarding desired, virtuous traits: political virtues and kinship virtues. Uprightness (zhi 直) and fortitude (gang 剛) were perceived as traits of strong political units. Kindness (ci 慈), and of course, filial piety, were known as characteristics of strong kinship bonds. Confucius’s contribution was the hybrid of these two societally valued norms. In Han’s Intertextual Commentary the Odes, he develops nuance in the archaic definition of filial piety to extend past family contexts– that is, filial piety not simply being deference to elders, but “[the] child has a dual set of duties, to both a father and ruler, the former filial piety and the other loyalty”; and in both traditional and modern Chinese, the term for country is “国家”, which literally translates to “nation-family”. The Confucian lens of the state breeds respect between the state and the people, which many countries in the status quo fail to achieve.

Responsibilities of State Towards People’s Welfare

In certain lights, it may seem that Confucius’s ideal government would have all its subjects in filially pious subservience to them, that it would be an aristocratic elite that claims the blessing of deities. But the provisions of the Confucian government benefited the people far more than structures in the present day. 

Uniquely due to the family model of the state, governments under Confucian influence were subject to a unique accountability for the welfare of people. The Confucian state’s function was to educate and transform people– to fulfill the role of the father figure who cultivates his young. Legal regulation was shunned, as Confucius expected people would have “no sense of honour and shame”, even if they avoided wrongdoing. Rather, leading with virtue, moral example, and mediation was thought to provide people with a sense of shame and humility that would self-correct; people emulating the ruler was crucial to Confucian philosophy.

Conclusion

When Confucius was asked by his disciple Tzu-kung– out of food, armament, and confidence of the people– which two he would abandon, his immediate response was armament and food. "There have been deaths from time immemorial, but no state can exist without the confidence of the people," he explained.

At the end of the day, Confucianism, as all other political philosophies do, has its flaws; critics may attack it for its over-idealism, or its hierarchies. Yet even so, its contribution to modern political thought remains significant. Its interaction with Western thought intertwines and brews into the philosophical thought we possess today, for more meaningful contention on the existence of the state.

Sources

Political philosophy, Confucian.

Confucius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

https://olemiss.edu/courses/inst203/confucianthought.pdf